Film+Terms

**Shot** A single 'run' of the camera. This is the basic unit from which a film is constructed. The length (or duration) of a shot depends upon: a. its purpose ie. establishing a place; to show action; to show reaction b. the pace (or tempo) of the sequence in which it occurs. A group of sequences, or, (for short scenes) a group of shots, which: c. depict an event in the story. and d. occur in one place. A scene is generally a larger unit than a sequence (though) sometimes a group of shots can be classified as either).
 * __Structure of Film__**
 * Scene**

__Camera Techniques: Distance (shot sizes) __

 * Establishing shot: **Opening shot or sequence, also known as an Extreme Long Shot (ELS). Used to set the scene.
 * MCU (Medium Close-Up):** head and shoulders.
 * Close-up (CU):** A picture which shows a fairly small part of the scene, such as a character's face, in great detail so that it fills the screen.
 * BCU (Big Close-Up):** forehead to chin. Used to show people in a state of emotional excitement, grief or joy. In interviews, the use of BCUs may emphasise the interviewee's tension and suggest lying or guilt. Note that in western cultures the space within about 60cm is generally felt to be private space, and BCUs may be invasive.

__Camera Techniques: Angles__
In filming a shot a decision is made about the angle at which the camera is to be directed at a subject. High and Low angles may be used to influence our impression of a particular character. The angle is the direction and height from which the camera takes the scene. ‘Factual’ programmes’ subjects should be shot from eye-level only. In a **high angle** the camera looks down at a character, making the viewer feel more powerful than him or her, or suggesting an air of detachment. The character (or a building etc) may seem insignificant, weak, vulnerable, small etc.. A **low angle** shot places camera below the character, exaggerating his or her importance or power. It can make them seem tall, strong, powerful or proud. A **distorted angle** may be used to make a scene more frightening, or to make the viewer feel anxious, or queasy (especially if fast or jerky camera movement is also used).

__Camera Techniques: Movement__

 * Following pan.** The camera swivels (in the same base position) to follow a moving subject. A pan usually begins and ends with a few seconds of still picture to give greater impact. The speed of a pan across a subject creates a particular mood as well as establishing the viewer's relationship with the subject. 'Hosepiping' is continually panning across from one person to another; it looks clumsy.
 * Tracking.** The camera follows a moving object (eg a person running) by moving along beside it. The camera is usually placed on a miniature railway track to do this.
 * Zoom**. In zooming the camera does not move. To **zoom IN** the lens is focussed down from a long-shot to a close-up whilst the picture is still being shown. The subject is magnified, and attention is concentrated on details previously invisible as the shot tightens (contrast tracking). It may be used to surprise the viewer. Zooming OUT reveals more of the scene (perhaps where a character is, or to whom he or she is speaking) as the shot widens. Zooming in rapidly brings not only the subject but also the background hurtling towards the viewer, which can be disconcerting.

__Editing Techniques__
This is the process of assembling and splicing together the various shots which comprise a film. The **editing speed (or tempo)** of a particular sequence is an important consideration. **Fast editing** involves fast cutting. ie. The shots are 1 to 2 seconds long. Fast editing generates excitement and anticipation as for example in a chase sequence. **Slow editing** (ie. Shots are 3 to 10 seconds long), has the opposite effect, calming and relaxing the viewer. Accordingly slow editing is a characteristic of love scenes.
 * Cut:** The ending of a shot.
 * Dissolve: **One image fades in while another **fades** out so that for a few seconds the two are superimposed.
 * Slow motion****:** Slowing the film down so that characters move unnaturally. This emphasises the characters’ feelings and movements. You will often notice music or sound is particularly eerie or dramatic during slow motion.

**__Manipulating Time__** **Compressed time.** The compression of time between sequences or scenes, and within scenes. This is the most frequent manipulation of time in films: it is achieved with cuts or dissolves. In a dramatic narative, if climbing a staircase is not a significant part of the plot, a shot of a character starting up the stairs may then cut to him entering a room. The logic of the situation and our past experience of medium tells us that the room is somewhere at the top of the stairs. Long journeys can be compressed into seconds.
 * Flashback.** A break in the chronology of a narrative in which events from the past are disclosed to the viewer.
 * Flashforward.** Much less common than the flashback.
 * Long take.** A single shot (or take, or run of the camera) which lasts for a relatively lengthy period of time. The long take has an 'authentic' feel since it is not inherently dramatic.

__Use of Sound__
= Atmosphere: Sounds from the environment such as traffic noise, the wind blowing etc. = **Commentary/voice-over narration.** Commentary spoken off-screen over the shots shown. In dramatic films, it may be the voice of one of the characters, unheard by the others.
 * Dialogue: **What characters say. Off camera dialogue is where the viewer hears the character’s voice, but the character is not in the shot.

= Foley effects: Sounds made by the on-screen actions of the characters (eg footsteps). Foley effects are sometimes recorded later then synchronised with the shots (such as the “smacks” heard in a fist fight). = **Music.** Music helps to establish a sense of the pace of the accompanying scene. The rhythm of music usually dictates the rhythm of the cuts. The emotional colouring of the music also reinforces the mood of the scene. Background music is **asynchronous music** which accompanies a film. It is not normally intended to be noticeable. Conventionally, background music accelerates for a chase sequence, becomes louder to underscore a dramatically important action. Through repetition it can also link shots, scenes and sequences. Foreground music is often **synchronous** music which finds its source within the screen events (e.g. from a radio, TV, stereo or musicians in the scene). It may be a more credible and dramatically plausible way of bringing music into a programme than background music (a string orchestra sometimes seems bizarre in a Western). = Sound effects: Other sounds apart from dialogue and music. =
 * Direct sound.** Live sound. This may have a sense of freshness, spontaneity and 'authentic' atmosphere, but it may not be acoustically ideal.
 * Selective sound.** The removal of some sounds and the retention of others to make significant sounds more recognizable, or for dramatic effect - to create atmosphere, meaning and emotional nuance. Selective sound (and amplification) may make us aware of a watch or a bomb ticking.
 * Silence.** The juxtaposition of an image and silence can frustrate expectations, provoke odd, self-conscious responses, intensify our attention, make us apprehensive, or make us feel dissociated from reality.
 * Sound bridge.** Adding to continuity through sound, by running sound (narration, dialogue or music) from one shot across a cut to another shot to make the action seem uninterrupted.

__Narrative style__
**Mise-en-scene:** (Contrast montage). 'Realistic' technique whereby meaning is conveyed through the relationship of things visible within a single shot. Think of this as a static image on the screen. What can you tell about the ‘layout’ of the people and items you see in that shot? The way people stand and move in relation to each other is important. Long shots and long takes are characteristic. **__Lighting Jargon__** Lighting is as much about creating and using SHADOWS as it is about illuminating a subject or scene. Think about how shadows as well as light have been used. = Backlighting: The lighting comes from behind the subject. This can help define the subject and “cut them out” from the scene. = = Colour: Coloured lighting can affect a viewer’s reading of a scene or character. For example, orange or red light in a scene can suggest warmth. Blue can suggest night, cold or evil. = = Fill lighting: Additional lighting used to reduce shadows or soften features. = = Filters / Effect lighting: Used to adjust the type and colour of the light used. = = High key lighting: A dominant light source is used to create low contrast and to soften the shadows. = = Key lighting: The main light on the subject. = = Low key lighting: Several light sources are used to create low contrast and to soften the shadows. = = Underlighting / Lowlighting: Light shines up at the subject, which can make him/her look threatening. =
 * Objective treatment.** The 'objective point of view' involves treating the viewer as an observer. A major example is the 'privileged point of view' which involves watching from omniscient vantage points. Keeping the camera still whilst the subject moves towards or away from it is an objective camera effect.
 * Parallel development/parallel editing/cross-cutting.** An intercut sequence of shots in which the camera shifts back and forth between one scene and another. Two distinct but related events seem to be happening at approximately the same time. A chase is a good example. Each scene serves as a cutaway for the other. Adds tension and excitement to dramatic action.
 * Subjective treatment.** The camera treatment is called 'subjective' when the viewer is treated as a participant (e.g. when the camera is addressed directly or when it imitates the viewpoint or movement of a character). We may be shown not only what a character sees, but how he or she sees it – also known as 'first-person' use of camera.
 * Talk to camera.** The sight of a person looking ('full face') and talking directly at the camera establishes their authority or 'expert' status with the audience. Eg: newsreaders, weather forecasters. **Tone.** The mood or atmosphere of a programme (e.g. ironic, comic, nostalgic, romantic).

**__Other Terms__** **Hand Held Camera: **The tripod and dolly are deliberately abandoned in favour of this method when a director wants to create a sense of anxiety or confusion, exploiting the unsteady movement of the camera. A hand held shot in which a character is approached from behind usually suggests that someone is being followed and is about to be 'pounced upon'...
 * Soft Focus: **A slightly blurred shot to make the subject seem more attractive, romantic, nostalgic or dreamlike.

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